Labiatae Tanacetum vulgare Tansy. NO Compositae. Tincture of whole flowering plant. CLINICAL Flies, worms of any type, Japanese beetles, ants, moths, fleas. Rabies. Nematodes. Peach is most affected by Tanac. Premature fruit drop. GENERAL Grows on high ground and pastures. Tanacetum oil is, according to Hale (quoted
Labiatae
Tanacetum vulgare
Tansy. NO Compositae. Tincture of whole flowering plant.
CLINICAL
Flies, worms of any type, Japanese beetles, ants, moths, fleas. Rabies. Nematodes. Peach is most affected by Tanac. Premature fruit drop.
GENERAL
![250px-Sawfly_003[1]](http://hpathy.com/papersnew/images/Bacillus/image060.jpg)
Grows on high ground and pastures.
Tanacetum oil is, according to Hale (quoted by Clarke), identical with Santonin, thus explaining the vermifugal action of Tanac. Besides this, Peyraud (quoted by Clarke) has used tansy as a substitute for vaccinations against rabies. In Russia it is used as a substitute for hops in beer. It has a camphorous odour. Worm expellant in cattle and sheep.
From herbals (Grieve, 1931, Hylton, 1974, and others) it has been found that as a plant it repels flies, Japanese beetles and ants.
In potency it is taken up by the plant and confers thus immunity against some pests. Especially useful to keep ants away from plants infested with aphids, as ladybug larvae cannot feed as easily on aphids protected by ants.
Teucrium marum
Cat thyme. Marum verum. Teucrium marum.. NO Labiatae. Tincture of whole fresh plant.
CLINICAL
Thread worm. Cabbage root fly. Moths. Nematodes. Mastitis in cows. Flowering and fruit setting problems.
GENERAL
There exists no other remedy that meets cases of nematodes better than Teucr. Nematodes inhibit plant growth and impede respiration, especially the root knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.). In potato tubers the whole of the tuber becomes lumpy. Some other remedies like Calendula also can be used for nematode control (see also Sin. alb. and Sin. nig. ).
From the symptoms listed in the Materia Medica references can be drawn in regard to nutrient levels – both nematodes and Teucr. symptoms are identical.
In companion planting the species of Teucrium are not as effective as Ruta, but do confer immunity to pests on plants in potency. All species of thyme have this capacity, the Thymus varieties equally so.
From different herbals (Grieve, 1931, Hylton, 1974) and companion plant books (Hemphill, 1990, Philbrick and Gregg, 1966) it can be learned that dried thyme repels moths in the wardrobe.
Many tests are still to be conducted to establish the full range of Teucrium preparations.
RELATIONS
Compare: Mentha.
Leguminosae
Camphora
Camphor. Cinnamonium camphora. Laurus camphora. NO Lauraceae. Gum obtained from Laurus camphora. Solution in rectified spirit.
CLINICAL
Moths, wood worms, white ants and other pests. Lodging, waterlogging, negative effects of. Cockroaches, ants.
GENERAL
L. camphora grows in South-East Asia and Australia.
Camphor is a white crystalline substance, which is harvested from the tree L. camphora. There are some other odourous volatile products, found in different aromatic plants that have been given the same name. It is found either in longitudinal cavities in the heart of the tree or extracted from the leaves and twigs.
Grieve’s herbal mentions that:
“It is a well known preventive against moths and other insects, such as worms in wood; natural history cabinets are often made of it, the wood of the tree being occasionally imported to make cabinets for entomologists.”
(Grieve, 1931).
As Camphor is a powerful remedy, it should be used with caution, because of severe reactions it produces. It is often prescribed in the lower potencies,
“but those whose knowledge of Camphor is confined to its coarser action will never understand what a great remedy it is when used according to its fine symptomatic indications and given in the higher potencies.” (Clarke, 1991).
Because of its wide range of symptoms and the overlapping of primary and secondary reactions in humans, it is difficult to use there. In plants it produces enough symptoms to warrant its use in lodging, especially if caused by waterlogging, as Camphor is indicated for diseases arising from cold and damp weather.
The roots feel slimy, the slime being viscid, as is not found on healthy roots. The plant is excessively thirsty.
The capillary system does not work property, thus interfering with trans-port of sugars to the roots and the uptake of nutrients into the plant. Respiration and photosynthesis are consequently defective and the plant slowly withers and collapses.
If in the flowering stage, pollination occurs at night, when pollen feeding insects are at rest, thus interfering with fruit-setting.
Termites
Termites belong in the same family as cockroaches and not in that of the ants, as their common name, the white ant, would suggest. They are related to the stonefly as well. They live in colonies, which have, contrary to all other colony dwellers such as ants and bees, not only a queen but also a king. The population is built up out of workers, soldiers and other castes. The soldiers have large heads and strong mandibles, but they are the ones that first scurry into safety when the nest is disturbed, especially so with the subterranean species.
Most species are 4-10mm long, white or cream coloured and soft bodied. The nest is constructed, depending on the species, either underground, in trees or in mounds. Most species either attack living or dead wood, reason why many wooden houses or the stumps on which they are built are a target for the termites.
Some species feed on fungi, which they grow in underground tunnels, while still others feed on turf, fieldcrops and other vegetation, chewing the roots. In spring they may swarm; males and females on the wing emerge in massive numbers from the nest, similar to ants. These mate, drop their wings and set up a new nest as a royal couple. From the eggs the workers emerge, which build a new nest. In two to three years the egg-production speeds up with more egg laying females. Some queens become too large to move and only lay eggs; some species manage upto 4000 eggs in 24 hours.
In Australia they may attack a large range of trees, mainly of the Eucalypt order and some others. The reduction of native forests has brought them to human dwellings. Camph. is a good remedy against the termite. In the crude form it has been of service for hundreds of years. The camphor tree, Laurocerasus camphora, will remain free of termites, mainly because they do not like the smell. However, it is not only the smell that makes Camph. an excellent remedy against the termite. In the potencies it works just as well, while in such fine dilutions there is little or no question of any smell apparently. On the other hand, pheromones can be much subtler than our gross noses can smell. When we consider the dog to smell 100000 times better than us, it is quite conceivable that insects have finer senses still.
It is also possible that Camph produces a repellant quality discernible to the termite or that the insects are sensitive to the action of Camph. With its prostration and debility in humans, it is an unwanted phenomenon in a termite nest. There is constant work to do with the eggs, the larvae and the food reserves, as well as many other tasks. A sleepy and debilitated state can be the death of the nest. Camphor has been used on timber stock against termites with good results.
Solanaceae
Nasturtium
Tropeolum. NO Cruciferae. Tincture of the seeds/whole plant.
CLINICAL
White aphids, squash bugs, white fly in tomatoes. Nematodes. Mealy bug.
GENERAL
Nasturtium is a companion plant that has the proven ability to protect other species against different species of aphids, according to Hylton, Grieve and others. Thus a homoeopathic dilution ought to be able to confer to plants a type of immunity to aphid infestation.
From experiments with plants it was noted that aphid infestation was only slightly influenced by Nasturtium in the 3x potency. More provings need to be conducted to establish with certainty the effects of the remedy. Experiments carried out on fennel infested with black aphid have been conducted. It deserves tests and provings on a larger variety of plants in different potencies.
Phalangium opilio
Harvestman, Daddy longlegs, Harvest spider NO Arachnida: Opiliones, Phalangiidae
CLINICAL:
Harvestmen will feed on many soft bodied arthropods in crops, including aphids, caterpillars, leafhoppers, beetle larvae, mites, and small slugs.
GENERAL:
Of the many species of harvestmen known, P. opilio tends to be the most common in relatively disturbed habitats such as most crops in temperate regions. Like the spiders and most adult mites, harvestmen have two major body sections and eight legs and lack antennae. Unlike spiders, the two body sections of harvestmen are broadly joined and no web spinning organs are present. Harvestmen differ from most mites by their larger size and by having the posterior body section distinctly segmented.
Appearance
The most notable features of P. opilio and many other harvestmen are the long, slender legs and short, globular body. Adult body length is approximately 3.5-9 mm, with males generally smaller than females. The upper surface of the body is colored with an indistinct and variable light gray or brown pattern, and the lower surface is typically light cream. Immatures are similar to adults, only smaller and with legs shorter relative to the body size. Eggs are spherical, about 0.4 mm diameter, with a smooth surface and color changing from off-white to dark gray-brown as they mature. They are laid in clusters of around ten to several hundred.
Habitat (Crops)
Harvestmen are often common in crops such as corn, alfalfa, small grains, potatoes, cabbage, strawberries, and apple in most temperate regions of the world.
Lifecycle
Phalangium opilio has a single generation per year and overwinters as eggs. In parts of North America two or more generations may occur, and eggs, immatures, or adults may overwinter. Eggs are laid in moist areas under rocks, in cracks in the soil, or between the soil and the crowns or recumbent leaves of plants. The eggs hatch in three weeks to five months or more, depending on temperature, and the immatures undergo several molts and reach maturity in two to three months, again depending on temperature.
Relative Effectiveness
Although P. opilio by itself appears unable to keep populations of any pest under control, it serves as one member of a complex of generalist predators that exist in many crops and that together are able to help keep pest densities low. In addition to pest arthropods, P. opilio also may feed on dead insects and other decaying material, as well as earthworms, other harvestmen, spiders and other beneficial invertebrates. Although its generalist feeding habits and tendency for cannibalism may appear to reduce its value in some situations, they may also allow it to persist in the crop during periods of low pest density and help suppress outbreaks of pests in their early stages.
Pesticide Susceptibility
P. opilio is highly susceptible to at least some broad spectrum insecticides, while some more specific products, such as Bts, appear to be less harmful.
Conservation
Avoid using broad-spectrum insecticides as much as possible.
Commercial Availability
Not currently available commercially.
Beetles & Weevils
Solanaceae
Cantharis
Spanish fly. NO Coleoptera. Trituration of live insect. Tincture of the live insect.
CLINICAL
Sunburn, blisters on leaves and petals. Fertiliser burns, water droplet burns, after bush fires, windburn, sunburn. Bronze orange bug, rust chrysanthemum, pelargonium. Blister beetles on potatoes.
GENERAL
Cantharis upsets the generative sphere of the plant, causing burning. Consequently when the flowers appear burnt in hot weather, Canth. is the remedy. It causes and cures an abundance of pollination from too long a stamen, readily absorbed by female flowers. Leaves and flower petals blister in the sun, especially after misting. Plant may have a burnt appearance. Fertiliser burns. After bush fires, to speed recovery and regrowth.
APPEARANCE
Burnt as after bushfire. Blisters on leaves and flower petals from fertiliser, water droplets or sunburn.
WATER NEEDS
High. Plant very thirsty. To replace sap lost in fires (Carbo v.).
FLOWERS AND FRUIT
Flowers abundant. As a reaction to fire, plant triggers off reproduction before it dies. Abundant pollen, good pollination. Fruits fail to mature, and drop before they set.
RELATIONS
Compare: Bombyx, Carbo veg.
Lebia grandis
Lebia beetle. Lebia grandis. NO Coleoptera: Carabidae.
CLINICAL:
Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata.
GENERAL:
Lebia grandis belongs to a large family of beetles containing approximately 40,000 species. The cosmopolitan genus Lebia contains approximately 450 species that are distributed primarily in the tropics. Forty-eight species occur in North America north of Mexico. The life history is known for less than 10 of the North American species. The adults are predators and first instar larvae are parasitoids of chrysomelid beetles.
Appearance
Lebia beetles are usually colourful as adults and range in size from 2.5 to 14 mm in length, depending on the species. Lebia grandis is the largest species in the genus in North America. Its body length ranges from 8.5 to 10.5 mm. Its head is usually pale (with a reddish tinge) as are its mouthparts, antennae, and thorax. Its abdomen is mostly black with a metallic blue, purple, or sometimes greenish lustre to the elytra (wing covers). Its legs are entirely pale with a reddish tinge.
Lebia grandis first instar larvae are pale to tan in coloration, heavily sclerotized (hardened), with well developed appendages, mouthparts and antennae, as is typical for carabid larvae. The body length ranges from 3 to 4 mm and the width is approximately 0.5 mm. The second instar larvae undergo a gradual degeneration of appendages, develop a distended body with much reduced sclerotization (a simple form of hypermetamorphosis), eventually bearing little resemblance to the first instars.
Habitat
Lebia grandis is distributed in the eastern to mid-eastern United States and into adjacent Canada. It has been found inhabiting arable land and its vicinity. It has been found on cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum) and on horsenettle (Solanum carolinense) on arable land and neighboring open fields. Adults have also been observed on goldenrod (Solidago spp.).
Pests Attacked
Lebia grandis is an indigenous natural enemy of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. In fields of cultivated potato, adults are specialist predators of all immature stages of L. decemlineata. However, note that in no-choice feeding trials in the laboratory, L. grandis adults devoured the larvae of the asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi). [Neither adults nor larvae of C. asparagi are known to feed on potato plants.] L. grandis larvae are specialist ectoparasitoids of L. decemlineata mature larvae and pupae in the soil.
Lebia grandis has not been found in association with L. decemlineata on its ancestral host plant (Solanum rostratum) in central Mexico. It is conceivable that L. grandis was historically a specialist enemy of the closely related Leptinotarsa juncta on horse nettle in the south-eastern United States.
Life Cycle
Adults are diurnal under ideal conditions of high humidity and high temperature in late spring and summer in Maryland, USA. They have been seen on the upper-most foliage of potato plants feeding on the larvae of the Colorado potato beetle in Maryland. Adults are also nocturnal and have been captured in pitfall traps placed within plant rows during the growing season.
Adults emerge in late May to early June in Maryland, several weeks after the spring emergence of Colorado potato beetles. This ensures that prey (eggs and first to second instar larvae of L. decemlineata) are available for L. grandis adults, especially females, to feed on. It also provides adequate time for females to mate, then oviposit into soil near the base of the potato plants. Eggs are deposited singly into sandy soil. An adhesive substance (a possible secretion from the female’s accessory glands) covers each egg as it is laid, causing each to adhere to sand granules and become difficult to detect. A single female L. grandis can lay as many as 1300 eggs in its lifetime.
As first instar L. grandis emerge from the egg stage (within 2 weeks), they are very sensitive to dryness, but fairly well resistant to drowning. They readily search in the soil for L. decemlineata larvae about to pupate. First instars might follow an odour trail left behind by the L. decemlineata mature larvae, which burrow into the soil just prior to constructing their pupation chambers. In order to insure successful parasitism, L. grandis first instars must locate the L. decemlineata larvae before they seal their pupation cells. Apparently, L. grandis have a difficult time penetrating the sealed cells.
Once locating the host, the first instar larva attaches to the integument (skin) of the host with its mandibles and begins feeding. After moulting, the second instar L. grandis larva does not resume feeding. Metamorphosis to the pupal stage occurs soon thereafter, without any period of diapause. At 25°C, the adult emerges from the soil within 3 weeks from when it began feeding on its host. Two generations of L. grandis are probably produced each year in many populations in the south-eastern United States. Adults overwinter beneath the soil surface in or near potato fields.
Effectiveness
L. grandis have been considered by some to be the most promising indigenous enemy of L. decemlineata in North America. No large-scale field studies have been conducted to date. Under field conditions, L. grandis could be an effective predator/parasitoid of L. decemlineata on normal potato, when used in combination with other control strategies.
Foliar applications of Bt are probably compatible with the action of L. grandis. However, natural densities of L. grandis will not be great enough to effect control of this pest. Thus, augmenting the populations by releasing mass reared adults is one potential method for maximizing the effectiveness of this enemy of L. decemlineata. However, previous rearing experiments have resulted in only limited success in mass-producing L. grandis.
Conservation
In fields of normal (non-genetically engineered or transgenic) potato, the judicious use of pesticides will help conserve carabid populations. Timing of pesticide applications prior to spring emergence of adults would also help reduce unintentional killing of these natural enemies.
The growing of transgenic potatoes (containing the delta endotoxin derived from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. tenebrionis) that confer resistance to attacks from adults and larvae of the Colorado potato beetle presents a unique challenge to the conservation of L. grandis. In pure stands of transgenic potato, L. grandis adults will not persist due to the low availability of prey to feed on. This problem is magnified due to the fact that L. grandis larvae will not have its hosts, L. decemlineata mature larvae and pupae.
Pesticide Susceptibility
As far as known, Lebia grandis adults and larvae can be killed by organophosphate, carbamate, or pyrethroid insecticides when contacting residues on the ground or foliage of potato plants. However, spray formulations of Bt are probably much less harmful.
Commercial Availability
Not available commercially at this time.
Vitaceae
Ricinus communis
Castor oil plant. Palma christi. NO Euphorbiaceae. Tincture or trituration of fresh seeds or fresh plant.
CLINICAL
Pests in viticulture: vine mite, rust mite, grapevine moth, hawk moth, scale. Pests in Cucurbitae. Worms.
GENERAL
This plant is a native of India.
From Clarke’s Materia Medica we can learn, that the leaves of this plant have an especially powerful effect on the breast and the generative sphere. From this fact one can deduce the action on the flowers and fruits on plants. As it is a good companion to grapevines its action on grape flowers and fruits is borne out by the provings. As with all plant pest and disease remedies, analogy is the most often used means of determining its effects on plants. Subsequent provings usually – but by no means always – confirm the analogy. Sometimes however it proves to have additional features not arrived at through analogy, but either through clinical experience or provings.
From the Materia Medica it has become clear that it acts as a vermifuge, however it needs to be used with caution, as too high a dose can severely purge the animal and debilitate it to a great extent. Analogous is its action on nematodes.
Mites
Brassicae
Amblyseins spp. cucumeris/californicus/ mackenzie
Predatory mite. Amblyseins mackenzie. NO Acaridae, Class Arachnida. Tincture of the live insect. Trituration of the live insect.
CLINICAL
Mites. Redlegged earth mite, spidermite, russet mite, rust mite, blister mite, two-spotted mite.
GENERAL
Evidently, we have sought to expand the range of remedies to combat pests. Naturally, we were curious to see if there were other possibilities in using predators, as already known from the first edition, where Coccinella was the first remedy made form a predator. By carefully studying the literature on the use of Integrated Pest Management, we figured there would be many possible remedies against pests.
Many of the remedies presented here have been inspired by this literature. Moreover, we obtained the necessary insects from companies that rear them to produce these remedies and test them in the field. They performed beyond expectations and are presented here as remedies of the first order in the protection of plants against pests.
Mites pose a problem for the grower in that they infest plants, where they weave a fine webbing around the branches and leaves, shutting them off from oxygen and carbon monoxide, effectively strangling and suffocating the plant.
They migrate by attaching themselves to other insects and lifting along to a new location. Many scientists hold them to be parasites of the insect on which they are found, but this is an incorrect notion. Trombidium is one such example. Predatory mites also migrate as adults, which makes it difficult to determine how many predator mites are needed at what stage. They also swarm and migrate in the same manner, making it equally difficult to determine the amounts of predator mites for an infestation of redlegged earth mites or any of the other varieties of mite. The amounts may fluctuate due to arrival of more mites or departure of the same, in search of newer hunting grounds.
As a remedy, no such considerations need to bother the grower, since it is always available and a single dose is enough to protect the plant or crop for the duration of its annual or biennual existence. Homoeopathy has so many advantages over any other method, there is actually no comparison.
The diverse species of Amblyseins are equally effective. Each of the subspecies can be used for the control of mites in the crop, regardless whether these crops are grown outside or in the greenhouse
Bovista
Warted puffball. Lycoperdon bovista. NO Fungi. Trituration. Trituration of the fresh fungus.
CLINICAL
Spider-mite and other mites. Ovarian problems, such as deformation, capillary relaxation. Moist and dry rots. Moulds.
GENERAL
“This globular fungus, which according to report, is eaten in Italy before it is ripe, becomes filled while ripening with the blackish dust that breaks the husk which contains it with a slight noise.”
(Clarke, 1991)
The signature points to bloatedness, puffiness and enlargement. Ovarian problems in flowers. Moist and dry rots in many plants. Root rots with putrid smell. Plants are thirsty, more so in the afternoon and evening.
The spider mite can just be seen by the unaided eye, mainly because of its contrasting colour. The females are present in greater numbers. They are harder to spot because they are pale green. In winter the females turn orange red, but hide under the bark, in the junction of branches or at the base of the plants. In spring they feed on the young shoots or seedlings, turn green again and move back up the plant.
Bean debris harbours those that overwinter. In hot, dry weather they do the most damage. Heavy rain reduces their numbers. The damage is visible as chlorosis, drying out and becoming brittle. Leaves turn grey.
Bovista was tried for fairy-ring spot on turf which proved to be a failure. In the process its action on the spider mite was a welcome and happy result. Naturally, it was quite a surprise and it has puzzled me no end to discover what in the puffball stops the mites. Careful investigation of the latest developments in pest control gave me a clue.
In IPM the use of fungi to combat pests has provided us with a range of remedies that will be effective against several pests. Bovista beloings in the Natural Order of fungi and its action on the spider-mite and other mites is probably due to a similar mechanism as the fungi used in IPM. It remains to be confirmed or denied by microscopic evidence.
Ricinus communis
Castor oil plant. Palma christi. NO Euphorbiaceae. Tincture or trituration of fresh seeds or fresh plant.
CLINICAL
Pests in viticulture: vine mite, rust mite, grapevine moth, hawk moth, scale. Pests in Cucurbitae. Worms.
GENERAL
This plant is a native of India.
From Clarke’s Materia Medica we can learn that the leaves of this plant have an especially powerful effect on the breast and the generative sphere. From this fact one can deduce the action on the flowers and fruits on plants. As it is a good companion to grapevines its action on grape flowers and fruits is borne out by the provings. As with all plant pest and disease remedies, analogy is the most often used means of determining its effects on plants. Subsequent provings usually – but by no means always – confirm the analogy. Sometimes however it proves to have additional features not arrived at through analogy, but either through clinical experience or provings.
From the Materia Medica it has become clear that it acts as a vermifuge, however it needs to be used with caution, as too high a dose can severely purge the animal and debilitate it to a great extent. Analogous is its action on nematodes.
Trombidium
Red spidermite. Trombidium muscae domesticae. NO Acaridae (Clarke). NO Arachnidae. Family Acaridae. (Kaviraja) Tincture of the live insect.
CLINICAL
Carriers: housefly, stable fly, blow fly. Worse manuring, watering, cold rainy weather. Red spidermite.
GENERAL
There is some disagreement regarding the Natural Order in which this insect must be classified. J.H.Clarke mentions this remedy in his Dictionary of Materia Medica, where he gives the following description of the tiny insect.
‘Trombidium is a parasite found on the common housefly, of a bright red colour, nearly circular in shape. The alcoholic tincture, a brilliant orange in colour, was prepared from specimens, about 115, collected in Frankfort, Philadelphia in September, 1864.’
(Clarke J.H. Dictionary of Materia Medica)
Hence the name ‘muscae domesticae’, housefly.
Although Clarke presents this as a “parasite of the housefly”, modern research suggests it is a species of Tarsonemus mite, which, considering its orange red colour, is the red spider mite.
”The Tarsonemus mite, which swarms by attaching itself to the fly.’
(Hussey, 1981),
It has been misidentified by Clarke as a parasite. In fact, it will swarm also with blowflies or the stable fly or any other insect that goes somewhere else. Thus according to some, it falls in the Order of Arachnidae and not the Acaridae. However, what seems to be forgotten is the fact that mites are all classed under the Family of Acaridae in the Order of Arachnidae
There are other researchers who mistake hitch-hiking mites for parasites of the insect with which they took their hike. In the literature this mis-identification is a regular phenomenon among those that have entomological knowledge. They have heard something about parasites, without being encumbered with knowing about the migratory habits of the spidermite.
The mite breeds in compost and manure, feeds on mycelium of different species of fungi found in manures mixed with straw. It also attacks the mycelium of developing spores of edible mushrooms and is a serious pest among mushroom growers worldwide.
The grand keynote of Tromb. is worse from nutrients and watering. Any plant suffering from a pest or disease that gets worse from the application of fertiliser or water, will improve under Tromb. Blotches and patches, more prevalent on hairy leaves.
Roots may have mould and poor assimilation of nutrients. The capillaries seem congested. Leaves, especially in hairy species may show spots. The respiration, photosynthesis, and evaporation are all disturbed. From extensive tests by the USDA it has been observed that plants with excess potassium and phosphorus are more prone to aphid and mite attack, while pest numbers increase more rapidly on overfed plants.
RELATIONS
Compare: Bovista.
Campylomma
Campylomma is a generalist predator of apple and pear orchard pests including mites, aphids, and pear psylla. Unfortunately it is also recognized as a pest of apple fruit and in rare instances may cause damage to pear. Adults and nymphs are predacious, but may feed on fruit (causing cosmetic damage to skin of fruit) if available prey are reduced to very low numbers. Campylomma occurs in most deciduous fruit growing regions of the northern U.S. and southern Canada.
Appearance
The adult is green-brown, elongated oval in shape, and about 1/10 inch (2.5mm) long. It has a dark spot on the first antennal segment and black spines on the legs. The nymphs are ovate and translucent when first hatched, but gradually turn pale green. The egg is about 1/28 inch (0.87mm) long and sac-shaped. It is inserted into the bark, stems, and/or leaves of host plants with only the operculum (cap or cover) exposed.
Habitat
Campylomma is found in both pome fruit trees and herbaceous plants, particularly mullein.
Pests Attached
Common prey include aphids, mites, thrips, and pear psylla.
Life Cycle
Campylomma overwinters as an egg in apple and pear bark and perhaps other woody deciduous hosts. Eggs hatch in the spring before bloom of apple and pear. Nymphs develop through five instars in about 21 days at 72 degrees F (21 C). The period of nymphal development of the first generation is the time fruit is most likely to be damage by Campylomma feeding. Adults first appear in mid to late May in the Pacific Northwest and a portion of the population moves into surrounding herbaceous hosts, particularly mullein (hence the common name), where they feed on thrips and other available prey. They migrate back into the orchards in late summer, where they mate and lay overwintering eggs. There are from two to four generations per year in the Pacific Northwest.
Relative Effectiveness
Campylomma can have a major impact on pear psylla populations in pear and aphid populations in apple. This mirid predator appears to be tolerant to many insecticides and is one of the few predators routinely found in heavily sprayed orchards.
Pesticide Susceptibility
Certain pesticides are known to be highly toxic to Campylomma, chlorpyrifos and formetanate hydrochloride are used when control is necessary, while others may have suppressive or little effect.
Conservation
Campylomma must be monitored closely early in the season in order to distinguish between beneficial and potentially damaging populations. Although apparently tolerant of many pesticides, use of pesticides that have a narrow spectrum of activity will help conserve this predator.
Commercial Availability
C. verbasci is not known to be commercially available.
Euseius tularensis
Acarina: Phytoseiidae
CLINICAL:
Primarily citrus red mite and citrus thrips, however, two-spotted spider mite, immature stages of scale insects and whitefly nymphs are also fed upon. This predatory mite also feeds on pollen and leaf sap.
GENERAL:
This predatory mite is an important control agent of citrus red mite and citrus thrips in San Joaquin Valley, California citrus orchards. A closely related species, E. hibisci, is common in the southern citrus growing region of California. E. tularensis prefers to inhabit citrus and E. hibisci prefers to inhabit avocados.
Appearance
Adults are pear-shaped and very shiny. They are white when feeding on pollen, yellow when feeding on citrus thrips, and red when they feed on citrus red mite. They avoid direct sunlight and when held on a leaf in the sun they will run rapidly down the main vein or across the leaf.
The eggs are oblong, almost transparent, and slightly larger than the citrus red mite eggs. The six-legged larvae are also transparent. E. tularensis is difficult to distinguish from other Euseius species without a compound microscope.
Habitat
Citrus. Avocado
Pests Attacked
Primarily citrus red mite and citrus thrips, however, two-spotted spider mite, immature stages of scale insects and whitefly nymphs are also fed upon. This predatory mite also feeds on pollen and leaf sap.
Life Cycle
E. tularensis overwinters as adults on the sucker shoots in the center of citrus trees. This predatory mite responds to the leaf texture and nutrition and is most abundant when new flush appears in the tree in the spring and fall. New citrus flush is rapidly followed by flowers, petal fall, and fruit development. Thus, the predatory mites are present when citrus thrips are damaging the fruit. Adults hunt along the leaf midveins in the shade in the day, under the calyx of the developing fruit, and over the entire fruit leaf surface toward nightfall. Total development time, from egg to adult, is 6-10 days, at 78-80°F. Females live about 30 days and lay 17 to 27 eggs, depending on the type of food they have available.
Relative Effectiveness
Because this predatory mite is a generalist in its feeding habits, it does not target any particular pest and so it may not regulate their numbers below an economic threshold. Populations of 0.5 to 1.0 per leaf help to reduce citrus red mite and citrus thrips populations.
Pesticide Susceptibility
Various San Joaquin Valley populations of E. tularensis have developed resistance to many organophosphate insecticides especially chlorpyrifos. They are still very sensitive to many carbamates (methomyl, formetanate hydrochloride) and pyrethroids used for citrus thrips, caterpillars, and scale control in citrus. Compatible, soft pesticides are sabadilla for citrus thrips control, abamectin and oil for citrus red mite control, and narrow range petroleum oil for California red scale.
Commercial Availability
This predator is not available commercially. Because of its need for small amounts of leaf sap, it must be reared on a leaf surface. Its numbers naturally increase in citrus when broad spectrum pesticides are not used.
Phytoseiulus persimilis
Predatory mite. Phytoseiulus persimilis NO Acarina: Phytoseiidae. Trituration of the live insect.
CLINICAL:
Mites.
GENERAL:
Phytoseiulus persimilis, a predaceous mite, is one of the mainstays of greenhouse integrated pest management programs for control of spider mites on vegetables and ornamentals in Europe, North America, and elsewhere. This mite was accidentally introduced into Germany from Chili in 1958 and subsequently shipped to other parts of the world, including California and Florida, from Germany.
Although extremely small (approximately 0.5 mm or 0.02 inches), P. persimilis can be distinguished with a hand lens. It is fast moving, orange to bright reddish orange, has a teardrop-shaped body and long legs, and is slightly larger than its prey. Immatures are a pale salmon color. Eggs are oval, approximately twice as large as the pest mite eggs.
(Note: in the winter, the twospotted spider mite also develops a reddish color, although two dark spots on its abdomen usually distinguish this pest from other mites.)
Habitat
Greenhouses, interior plantscapes, and crops where twospotted spider mites are a problem.
Pests Attacked (Host Range)
This species is a specialized predator of web-spinning spider mites such as the twospotted spider mite. In fact, P. persimilis feeds, reproduces, and completes development only on mites in the subfamily Tetranychinae, although it also feeds on young thrips and can be cannibalistic when spider mite prey is unavailable.
Life Cycle
P. persimilis eggs hatch in 2-3 days, and although the larval stage does not feed, the subsequent nymphs and adults feed on all stages of prey. Total time from egg to adult ranges from 25.2 days at 15°C (59°F) to 5.0 days at 30°C (86°F).
The adult female may lay up to 60 eggs during her 50 day-long lifetime at 17-27°C. Generation times of from seven to 17 days are possible, depending on temperature and humidity. Due to its tropical origin, P. persimilis does not have a diapause stage and is active year-round in enclosed habitats such as interior plantscapes and greenhouses.
Relative Effectiveness
Adult P. persimilis eat from 5-20 prey (eggs or mites) per day, they reproduce more quickly than the spider mites at temperatures above 28°C (82°F), and they feed on all stages of the twospotted spider mite. P. persimilis are very voracious. They have the highest consumption rate of all phytoseiids. However, they absolutely must have spider mite prey or they will disperse and/or starve.
Almost 75% of European greenhouse vegetable production relies on P. persimilis for spider mite control, and the California strawberry industry uses this mite, along with another beneficial mite, Neoseiulus (=Amblyseius) californicus, to control spider mite infestations in field-grown strawberries. It is also used in interior plantscapes and conservatories. Greenhouse ornamentals growers have long relied on its ability to control spider mites.
Humidity strongly impacts P. persimilis’ efficacy. Development was observed to almost stop at humidities of 25-30%, and relative humidities below 70% resulted in a reduction in the ability of immatures to molt from one stage to another. In one study, at a relative humidity of 40% (temperature 27°C), only 7.5% of eggs hatched compared to 99.7% at 80% relative humidity (same temperature). Eggs held at a relative humidity of 50% appeared to shrivel at all temperatures from 13-37°C.
Phytoseiid mites use odours (kairomones) associated with mite-infested plants to locate their prey. When P. persimilis contacts spider mite webbing, it intensifies its search for prey.
P. persimilis has high dispersal ability and its distribution is highly correlated to that of its prey. However, its ability to disperse is dependent on the environment. If infested plants’ leaves touch, dispersal is possible. When the plants have little contact with each other, dispersal is reduced by about 70%. P. persimilis moves upward on the plant in search of prey and disperses when prey is scarce. Nymphs do not disperse easily, and are left behind when prey becomes scarce.
Because these mites are such efficient hunters and dispersers, they can cause extinction of their spider mite prey. This is desirable where little or no spider mite damage can be tolerated, such as in ornamental plants. However, in crops where some plant damage is acceptable (e.g., tomatoes and cucumbers), it is desirable to have a stable interaction between predator and prey over an extended period of P persimilis will eventually exhaust its food supply and starve, and so it must be reintroduced.
Conservation
Relative humidity greater than 60% is required for survival of the predator, particularly through the egg stage.
Pesticide Susceptibility
Strains that are tolerant of some insecticides have been selected.
Commercial Availability
Widely available
Gall wasps
Ornamentals
Pseudoscymnus tsugae
Japanese ladybug. NO Coleoptera: Family Coccinellidae Tincture of the live insect. Trituration of the live insect.
CLINICAL:
P. tsugae is only known to attack A. tsugae in nature. However, laboratory experiments revealed that P. tsugae can also feed and develop on other adelgid species including balsam woolly adelgid, A. piceae, Cooley spruce gall adelgid, A. cooleyi, and pine bark adelgid, Pineus strobi.
GENERAL:
Among the most widespread and effective predators of hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae (Annand), in its native homeland of Japan is a previously non-described coccinellid of the genus, Pseudoscymnus. In 1992 Dr. Mark McClure collected this ladybird beetle from adelgid-infested hemlocks in 13 of 37 forests and at 11 of 37 ornamental sites in 12 prefectures throughout Honshu, Japan. Drs. McClure and Dr. Hiroyuki Sasaji have described and named this new beetle, P. tsugae. Beginning in 1995 more than 100,000 adult beetles have now been released in infested hemlock forests in Connecticut, New Jersey and Virginia to evaluate P. tsugae as a biological control agent.
The egg of P. tsugae is about 0.48 mm long by 0.25 mm wide and is oval and reddish-orange in color within an opalescent sheath. Eggs are often laid singly or in small groups in cracks and crevices in the bark and in bud scales. Larvae change from reddish-brown to gray and grow from about 1.1 mm to 2.7 mm during their four instars of development. The pupa is reddish-brown and is about 1.9 mm long and 1.1 mm wide. The newly emerged adult is light golden brown before darkening to jet-black within a day. Adults are oblong to oval-shaped and are about 1.7 mm long by 1.1 mm wide. The body is entirely black and is pubescent on its dorsal surface.
Habitat
Adults and larvae were found on branches of Tsuga diversifolia and T. sieboldii infested with A. tsugae throughout Honshu, Japan; adults were collected from sweep net samples of a grassy meadow in Fukui Prefecture, Japan; and all life stages were gathered from T. canadensis at release sites in Connecticut and Virginia.
Pests Attacked (Host Range)
P. tsugae is only known to attack A. tsugae in nature. However, laboratory experiments revealed that P. tsugae can also feed and develop on other adelgid species including balsam woolly adelgid, A. piceae, Cooley spruce gall adelgid, A. cooleyi, and pine bark adelgid, Pineus strobi.
Life Cycle
The life cycle of P. tsugae is well synchronized with that of its prey. Both insects have two generations each year in the field. Spring egg laying by adult beetles normally coincides with peak egg laying and hatching of adelgids. Furthermore a second generation of beetles occurs in June around the time that the second generation of adelgids does. Also, when adelgids are inactive for about 14 weeks during the summer, adult ladybugs are able to survive by feeding on dormant young adelgids. Three or more generations of P. tsugae can be reared each year in the laboratory under controlled temperature conditions.
Relative Effectiveness
Adults and larvae of P. tsugae are highly mobile and voraciously feed on all life stages of A. tsugae. Each beetle larva consumes about 500 adelgid eggs or from 50 to100 adelgid nymphs, depending upon the size, during its development. Adults can live for more than one year and may consume about 50 adelgid nymphs each week during times of peak feeding activity. Each female beetle lays nearly 300 eggs in her lifetime.
P. tsugae is an important predator of A. tsugae in Japan; it killed from 86 to 99% of the adelgids at the 24 sites were it occurred. Experiments conducted at four sites in Connecticut and one site in Virginia from 1995 through 1997 revealed that releasing relatively few adult beetles (2,400-3,600) into an infested hemlock forest reduced adelgid densities by 47-88% on release trees in only 5 months. In the field P. tsugae mated, reproduced and dispersed from release trees into the surrounding hemlock forest, and established. It overwintered successfully for three years under a wide variety of climatic conditions. These studies indicate that P. tsugae has excellent potential for biological control of A. tsugae.
Commercial Availability
P. tsugae is not available commercially. Research is underway to streamline the mass rearing of P. tsugae which for now remains extremely labor intensive. If P. tsugae proves to be a successful biological control agent for hemlock woolly adelgid, the rearing and release efforts will be intensified so that beetles can reproduce and spread on their own from relatively few release sites throughout the entire adelgid-infested area which now includes 11 eastern states.
V.D. Kaviraj
