Ants & Termites

Artemisia vulgaris

Southernwood.

Camphora

Camphor. Cinnamonium camphora. Laurocerasus camphora. NO Lauraceae. Gum

obtained from Laurus camphora.. Solution in rectified spirit.

CLINICAL

Moths, wood worms, white ants, and other pests. Lodging, waterlogging, negative effects of. Cockroaches, ants.

GENERAL

Camphor is white crystalline substance, which is harvested from the tree Laurocerasus camphora, which grows in South-East Asia and Australia. There are some other odorous volatile products, found in different aromatic plants that have been given the same name. It is found either in longitudinal cavities in the heart of the tree or extracted from the leaves and twigs.

Grieve’s herbal mentions that: “It is a well known preventive against moths and other insects, such as worms in wood; natural history cabinets are often made of it, the wood of the tree being occasionally imported to make cabinets for entomologists.

(Grieve, 1931).

As Camphor is a powerful remedy, it should be used with caution, because of severe reactions it produces. It is often prescribed in the lower potencies, “but those whose knowledge of Camphor is confined to its coarser action will never understand what a great remedy it is when used according to its fine symptomatic indications and given in the higher potencies. ” (Clarke, 1991).

Because of its wide range of symptoms and the overlapping of primary and secondary reactions in humans, it is difficult to use there. In plants it produces enough symptoms to warrant its use in lodging, especially if caused by waterlogging, as Camphor is indicated for diseases arising from cold and damp weather.

The roots feel slimy, the slime being viscid, as is not found on healthy roots. The plant is excessively thirsty.

The capillary system does not work property, thus interfering with transport of sugars to the roots and the uptake of nutrients into the plant. Respiration and photosynthesis are consequently defective and the plant slowly withers and collapses.

If in the flowering stage, pollination occurs at night, when pollen feeding insects are at rest, thus interfering with fruit-setting.

Termites

Termites belong to the same family as cockroaches and not to the ants, as their common name, the white ant, would suggest. They are related to the stonefly as well.

They live in colonies, which have, contrary to all other colony dwellers such as ants and bees, not only a queen but also a king. The population is built up out of workers, soldiers and other castes. The soldiers have large heads and strong mandibles, but they are the ones that first scurry into safety when the nest is disturbed, especially so with the subterranean species.

Most species are 4-10mm long, white or cream coloured and soft bodied. The nest is constructed, depending on the species, either underground, in trees or in mounds.

Most species either attack living or dead wood, reason why many wooden houses or the stumps on which they are built, are a target for the termites.

Some species feed on fungi, which they grow in underground tunnels, while still others feed on turf, field crops, and other vegetation, chewing the roots. In spring they may swarm; males and females on the wing emerge in massive numbers from the nest, similar to ants. These mate, drop their wings and setup a new nest as a royal couple. From the eggs the workers emerge, which build a new nest. In two to three years the egg-production speeds up with more egg laying females Some queens become too large to move and only lay eggs, some species manage up to 4000 eggs in twenty four hours.

In Australia they may attack a range of trees, mainly of the Eucalypt order, and some others. The reduction of native forests has brought them to human dwellings.

Camphora is a good remedy against the termite. In the crude form it has been of service for hundreds of years. The camphor tree will remain free of termites, mainly because they do not like the smell. However it is not only the smell that makes Camphora an excellent remedy against the termite. In the potencies it works just as well, while in such fine dilutions there is no question of any smell. It is possible that Camph produces a repellent quality, which is discernible to the termite, or that the insects are sensitive to the action of Camphora, with its prostration and debility, an unwanted phenomenon in a termite nest, where there is constant work to do with the eggs, the larvae, and the food reserves, as well as many other tasks, where a sleepy and debilitated state can be the death of the nest. Camphora has been used on timber stock against termites with good results.

However, some predators prefer certain prey from particular plants – there are several species of gauzefly predators to several species of whitefly. The remedy of the one will work on the other, but the appropriate remedy will be the one specific to that prey. Hence the cabbage whitefly requires a different gauzefly remedy from the carrot whitefly, which has its own gauzefly predator.

Bombyx processiona

Procession caterpillar. Bombyx processiona. NO Lepidoptera. Tincture of the live caterpillars.

CLINICAL

Caterpillars, vegetable loopers, sawfly larvae, army worms, cabbage moths and other caterpillars.

GENERAL

The true bombyx is not a very large caterpillar and is today known as the white cedar moth, Leptocheria reducta. It is about 45 mm long, dark brown, with yellow head and masses of long grey and black hairs, which on contact cause skin irritation.

Clarke mentions that: “it one case a boy shook a large number of caterpillars from a tree on his naked chest. It caused an itching so severe, that he had to run for assistance. Then fever, somnolency, delirium and finally death ensued.”

(Clarke, 1991)

The caterpillars live in colonies at the base of the tree during the day and feed on the foliage at night. After denuding the tree, they walk in a single file to the next, which behaviour accounts for their name. They produce two generations per year.

Rodale’s periodical relates the case of a commercial peanut and soybean farmer (1976). He prepared a crude product from vegetable loopers. Control was very successful. Another report from 1978 mentioned sawfly larvae being used in a similar fashion.

Bombyx in potency has been used to treat most caterpillars on most crops as a generic remedy. Both as a spray and in the trickle system it is effective. In both cases the plants become immune to caterpillar infestations.

RELATIONS

Compare: Canth. Samb., Val., Vib

Chrysopa carnea

Gauzefly. Chrysoperla =Chrysopa carnea, C. rufilabris Neuroptera: Chrysopidae. NO Hymenopterae. Family Chrysopidae. Genus Aphidius. Species Chrysopa carnea. Tincture of the live insect. Trituration of the live insect.

CLINICAL

Aphids, spider mites (especially red mites), thrips, whiteflies, eggs of leafhoppers, moths, and leafminers, small caterpillars, beetle larvae, and the tobacco budworm. Aphid infestations of all types on nearly all types of plants. Chrysopa prefers Brassicae, but will take aphids from almost any plant.

GENERAL

Common Green Lacewing C. carnea.

These green lacewings are common in much of North America. Adults feed only on nectar, pollen, and aphid honeydew, but their larvae are active predators. C. carnea occurs in a wide range of habitats in northeastern, midwestern and western U.S., and C. rufilabris may be more useful in areas where humidity tends to be high (greenhouses, irrigated crops, southeastern and midwestern U.S.).

Appearance

Adult green lacewings are pale green, about 12-20 mm long, with long antennae and bright, golden eyes. They have large, transparent, pale green wings and a delicate body. Adults are active fliers, particularly during the evening and night and have a characteristic, fluttering flight. Oval shaped eggs are laid singly at the end of long silken stalks and are pale green, turning gray in several days. The larvae, which are very active, are gray or brownish and alligator-like with well-developed legs and large pincers with which they suck the body fluids from prey. Larvae grow from <1 mm to 6-8 mm.

Habitat (Crops)

Cotton, sweet corn, potatoes, cole crops, tomatoes, peppers, eggplants, asparagus, leafy greens, apples, strawberries, and other crops infested by aphids.

Pests Attacked

Several species of aphids, spider mites (especially red mites), thrips, whiteflies, eggs of leafhoppers, moths, and leafminers, small caterpillars, beetle larvae, and the tobacco budworm are reported prey. They are considered an important predator of long-tailed mealybug in greenhouses and interior plantscapes.

Life Cycle

These two species of green lacewings overwinter as adults, usually in leaf litter at the edge of fields. During the spring and summer, females lay several hundred small (<1 mm) eggs on leaves or twigs in the vicinity of prey. Larvae emerge in 3-6 days.

The larval stage has three instars and lasts two to three weeks. Mature third instars spin round, parchment-like, silken cocoons usually in hidden places on plants. Emergence of the adults occurs in 10 to 14 days. The life cycle (under 4 weeks in summer conditions) is heavily influenced by temperature. There may be two to several generations per year.

Relative Effectiveness

These lacewing larvae are considered generalist beneficials but are best known as aphid predators. The larvae are sometimes called aphid lions, and have been reported to eat between 100 and 600 aphids each, although they may have difficulty finding prey in crops with hairy or sticky leaves.

Natural populations of Chrysoperla have been recorded as important aphid predators in potatoes, but mass releases of lacewings have yet to be evaluated against aphids in commercial potato production. In small scale experiments outside the United States, lacewings achieved various levels of control of aphids on pepper, potato, tomato, and eggplant, and have been used against Colorado potato beetle on potato and eggplant. On corn, peas, cabbage, and apples, some degree of aphid control was obtained but only with large numbers of lacewings. Mass releases of C. carnea in a Texas cotton field trial reduced bollworm infestation by 96%, although more recent studies show that C. carnea predation on other predators can disrupt cotton aphid control.

C. carnea is considered an important aphid predator in Russian and Egyptian cotton crops, German sugar beets, and European vineyards. The North Carolina State University Center for IPM considers it an important natural enemy of long-tailed mealybug, one of the 5 most important pests of NC interiorscapes.

Several strains of C. carnea occur in North America. Matching of the proper strain to specific pest management situations is desirable.

Pesticide Susceptibility

C. carnea appears to have some natural tolerance to several chemical insecticides although there may be considerable variation. Populations tolerant of pyrethroids, organophosphates, and carbaryl have been selected in the laboratory.

Conservation

Because young larvae are susceptible to dessication, they may need a source of moisture. Adult lacewings need nectar or honeydew as food before egg laying and they also feed on pollen. Therefore, plantings should include flowering plants, and a low level of aphids should be tolerated. Artificial foods and honeydew substitutes are available commercially and have been used to enhance the number and activity of adult lacewings. These products may provide sufficient nutrients to promote egg laying, but they cannot counter the dispersal behavior of newly emerged adult lacewings.

Commercial Availability

C. carnea and C. rufilabris are available commercially and are shipped as eggs, young larvae, pupae, and adults. C. carnea is recommended for dry areas, C. rufilabris for humid areas. Larvae are likely to remain near the release site if aphids or other prey are available. Newly emerging adults, however, will disperse in search of food, often over great distances, before laying eggs. Naturally, in potency such restrictions as to environment do not have any significance, because the remedy is not subject to environmental circumstances to enable its effectiveness.

‘All aphid parasites are Hymenoptera or wasps in the broad sense and belong to two Families; the Aphidiidae, which are the most important and are all aphid parasites and the Aphelinidae, which also parasitise other insects such as scale and whiteflies.

The Aphidiidae include many important genera; Aphidius, Praon, Ephedrus, Lysiphlebus, Monoctus and Trioxys. The adults are small, slender wasps with black, brown, orange or yellow colouration.’

(Hussey N.W. Biological Pest Control)

While in nature the wasp oviposits the aphid and still takes a few days to hatch, the remedy will immediately act and thus time is gained against the aphid devastation. For the different instars of the parasitic wasp do not interfere with the development of the aphid. Only at the 4^th instar does the predator become active enough to stop the aphid’s development and life.

The remedy made from the parasitic wasps does not have this delay in action, nor are they dependent on a particular instar of the aphid to do its work. Several parasitic wasps prefer or even need a particular instar of their prey to oviposit their eggs.

Another drawback to using parasitic wasps lies in the fact that although the adult female may make several hundred ovipositions during its life, only a small proportion will reach adulthood. Even under laboratory conditions only 100 will be produced, of which 60 might be female. Because development takes about two weeks, the maximum population increase rate can be calculated as approximately 4.5 x a week. In the greenhouse practise of every day, the rates are considerably lower.

These drawbacks do not exist with the homoeopathic potencies, which do not require breeding time, have no influence from the lifecycle of the pest or the weather conditions and are thus applicable at the time the infestation is acute. The immediate response is another feature with which the remedy shows superiority over even IPM.

Syrphina larva

Hover fly. NO Diptera: Syrphidae Syrphus spp., Allograpta spp. Tincture of the live insect. Trituration of the live insect.

CLINICAL

Aphid infestations; also as prophylactic

APPEARANCE

Aphid infestations. Plants covered in aphids. When Syrphina is sprayed or given directly to the plant, the aphids have either died by the next day or have fled. Notwithstanding their protection by ants, these cannot fight off a non-existing enemy and therefore the aphids will disappear.

GENERAL

Syrphina is a green, yellow or brown coloured glider, the larvae of which like aphids almost as much as Coccinella larvae do. When the soil is cultivated, the larvae which survive underground, are promptly killed. During the insect season the use of the remedy is therefore indispensible, if the farmer is not to succumb to pests.

Adults are 10 to 12 mm long marked with yellow, black, or white bands resembling bees or small yellowjackets. They fly swiftly and tend to hover over plants (also call hover or flower flies). Adults feed only on pollen, nectar, or honeydew produced by aphids. Larvae are about 12 mm long, wrinkled or slug-like, and tapered to a point anteriorly. They are usually brown or green with whitish areas. Eggs are chalky-white with faint longitudinal ridges and are laid singly among aphid colonies.

Lifecycle

Syrphid flies overwinter as pupae in the soil. Adults begin emerging in April and May about the same time as aphid populations begin to increase. They lay eggs on leaves and stems of plants infested with aphids or other suitable prey. Eggs hatch in 3 to 4 days into soft-bodied maggot-like larvae. Larvae feed for 7 to 10 days, then drop to the soil to pupate.

A life cycle from egg to adult is completed in 16 to 28 days and there are three to seven overlapping generations each year.

Importance

Larvae feed on soft-bodied insects, particularly aphids. As many as 400 aphids may be consumed by one larva during its development period. Larvae seize aphids with their mouth hooks and suck out the body contents. These predators are common in most field and vegetable crops and may be important in suppressing aphid populations if unnecessary applications of non-selective insecticides are avoided.

Two common species of syrphid flies occur in the northwest: the western syrphid, Syrphus opinator and Scaeva pyrastri, and both species are commonly found in mint fields.

Cucurbitae

Coccinella

Lady bird. Sunchafer. Coccinella septempunctata. Chrysopa septempunctata. NO Coleoptera. Genus Chrysopids. Tincture of the freshly crushed beetles.

CLINICAL

Aphids. Scale. Whitefly

GENERAL

Sevenspotted Lady Beetle

The sevenspotted lady beetle, repeatedly introduced to North America from Europe for the biological control of aphids, was established in the early 1970s in New Jersey, apparently from an accidental introduction. It has since spread naturally or been introduced to many northeastern and north central states. C. septempunctata may be a more effective predator than some native lady beetle species, displacing them in some areas.

Appearance

Comparatively large (7-8 mm) with a white or pale spot on either side of the head. The body is oval, and has a domed shape. The spot pattern is usually 1-4-2, black on the orange or red forewings. Lady beetle larvae are dark and alligator-like with three pairs of prominent legs, growing to 7-8 mm in length. Eggs are spindle shaped and small, about 1 mm long.

Habitat (Crops)

Aphid infested crops, including potatoes, legumes, sweet corn, alfalfa, wheat, sorghum, and pecans.

Pests Attacked

Reported prey include pea, cowpea, green peach, potato, corn leaf, melon aphids, and greenbug.

Life Cycle

Adults overwinter in protected sites near the fields where they feed and reproduce. In spring, emerging beetles feed on aphids before laying eggs. Females may lay from 200 to more than 1,000 eggs over a one to three month period commencing in spring or early summer. Eggs are usually deposited near prey such as aphids, often in small clusters in protected sites on leaves and stems. The eggs are small (about 1 mm) and spindle-shaped.

C. septempunctata larvae grow from about 1 mm to 4-7 mm in length over a 10 to 30 day period depending on the supply of aphids. Large larvae may travel up to 12 m in search of prey. A second generation may appear about a month later. The pupal stage may last from three to 12 days depending on the temperature.

In the northeastern United States, there are one to two generations per year before the adults enter winter hibernation. Development from egg to adult may take only two to three weeks, and adults, most abundant in mid- to late summer, live for weeks or months, depending on the location, availability of prey, and time of year.

Conservation

C. septempunctata is spreading to new areas each season. Conservation can best be accomplished by following integrated pest management guidelines as outlined in the tutorial of this guide.

Pesticide Susceptibility

Aphids attack grains, fruits, vegetables and flowers.

They are 1-2mm long in general, although larger species also exist (4-5mm). Different species have different colours, green, blue, pink, deep yellow, lemon-coloured, grey, white or black. Some species have wings. Others have a winged and a wingless stage. When over-crowding occurs, they grow wings, flying to other plants or other parts of the same plant. Near the end of the body two tubes protrude, called cornicles, a feature particular to aphids. Aphids are viviparous, ie. bearing live young, resulting in possible population explosions.

Coccinella either sprayed directly on the aphid or when given to the plant, rapidly diminishes the populations. Aphids pierce and suck, drawing sap from plants, preferably young shoots and buds, the latter producing deformed flowers. Some aphids form galls, attacking root system as well. Others carry yellow dwarf virus. Aphids are protected by ants and produce honey dew for them.

Population size depends on temperature and nutrient levels. At 15^oC the females produce three young per day, which increases to six at 25^oC and with high potassium and/or phosphorus levels can increase to ten. Hence population explosions occur mostly during warm to very warm weather, when humidity is around 40 to 50%.

Coccinella has been used extensivelly with good results, usually requiring only a single dose. Overdosing will attract aphids to a plant, resulting in repeated aphid infestations.

Coccus

Cochineal. Coccus cacti. NO Hemiptera. Trituration of the dried bodies of the female insect.

CLINICAL

All soft bodied scale.

GENERAL

Coccus, being a soft scale, is specific for treatment of soft scales, because it possesses similar properties. Shellac is an example of a remedy for hard scales, as it is a product of a hard scale species. Coccus has been used on different species of scale living on different trees. Eucalypt scale (wattle tick, soft brown scale), scale on citrus trees, scale on bottle brush disappeared after a single dose. As with Coccinella, care must be taken not to repeat the remedy

There are some twenty types of soft scale, all of which can be treated with this remedy. It is the remaining hard scale that must be treated with Shellac, approximately ten species. Thus each of these remedies is generic to the scale to a certain extent.

Dicyphus

CLINICAL: Whiteflies, aphids, thrip, spider mites. Greenhouse whitefly (Trialeurodes vaporariorum), Tobacco whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). Dicyphus will feed on two-spotted spider mite (Tetranychus urticae), Thrips and Moth eggs but will not control these pests.

GENERAL:

Plants

Note: Since Dicyphus is also a plant feeder it should not be used on crops such as Gerbera which can be damaged. This is only relevant if it is used as an Integrated Pest Management tool. In the potency such drwbacks do not exist. Most of the work with Dicyphus has been on vegetable crops such as tomato, pepper and eggplant where it will not cause plant damage by plant feeding.

Description

The predatory bug, Dicyphus hesperus is similar to Macrolophus caliginosus, which is being used in Europe to control whitefly, spider mites, moth eggs and aphids. The use of Dicyphus is being studied by D. Gillespie (Agriculture and Agri-Foods Canada Research Station, Agassiz, BC). Dicyphus should not be used on its own to replace other biological control agents. It is best used along with other biological control agents in greenhouse tomato crops that have, or (because of past history) are expected to have whitefly, spider mite, or thrips problems.

• Eggs are laid inside plant tissue and are not easily seen.

• Adults are slender (6mm), black and green with red eyes and can fly

• Nymphs are green with red eyes

Use in Biological Control

• Release Dicyphus as soon as whiteflies are found, early in the season at a rate of 0.25-0.5 bugs/m² (10 ft²) of infested area; repeat in 2-3 weeks.

• Release batches of 100 adults together in one area where whitefly is present or add supplementary food (frozen moth eggs: i.e. Sitotroga sp., Ephestia sp.) to these areas weekly.

• Dicyphus needs large numbers of prey (+100) to reproduce, so releases should only be made in areas where pests have been detected or where supplementary food is being added.

• This predator obtains water from plant feeding and can survive for long periods without food but must have insect food to reproduce. Feeding damage to the plant or tomato fruit is superficial and not usually noticeable unless population levels exceed 100 Dicyphus/plant.

• The use of banker plants such as mullein (Verbascum thapsus) and eggplant is useful for increasing Dicyphus numbers as well as monitoring for pests.

Monitoring Tips

• Adults and nymphs move quickly and hide in plant material when approached.

• On mature tomato plants adults and nymphs are often found on the middle leaves.

Tiphia vernalis

Spring Tiphia, Tiphia vernalis Rohwer. NO Trituration of the live insect. Tincture of the live insect in purified alcohol.

CLINICAL

Grubs of the Japanese beetle.

GENERAL

The Japanese beetle, Popillia japonica Newman, is a highly destructive insect pest. Damage caused by the feeding larva (grubs) and adults result in the loss of hundreds of millions of dollars to the agricultural and ornamental plant industry in the eastern United States annually. Introduced accidentally into the United States in about 1916 near Trenton, New Jersey, the beetle has spread throughout most of the eastern United States, with several outbreak areas well ahead of the main front. Though western states have been successful in eradicating introduced populations of the beetle in the past, and it is not yet widely established in the Midwest, it still presents a major quarantine threat to many of these areas, as well as to many countries outside the United States.

The Japanese beetle is not considered a significant pest in its native Japan, where natural enemies of the beetle, including insect parasitoids (parasites whose offspring eat the host or prey), pathogens, and predators significantly increase the mortality of the beetle. The use of natural enemies by humans to suppress populations of pest insects (and weeds) is called biological control.

Spring Tiphia, Tiphia vernalis Rohwer.

The spring Tiphia wasp, Tiphia vernalis Rohwer, is an effective biological control agent that can be used as part of an overall Integrated Pest Management program to suppress populations of the Japanese beetle. USDA researchers consider it to be the most effective parasitoid of the beetle in the U.S. When used in conjunction with other control strategies that do minimal harm to natural enemies of the Japanese beetle (such as parasitic wasps and nematodes), this wasp can regulate beetle populations at an acceptably low level.

The purpose of this book is to help people and agencies interested in sustainably suppressing populations of the Japanese beetle to establish the spring Tiphia and optimize the wasps’ reproductive potential for maximum control through the use of habitat modification by planting known food plants that the wasps favor.

The spring Tiphia was originally identified as a significant biological control agent of the Japanese beetle in Japan and Korea in the early 1920s. Between 1925-1927 the wasp was released in the northeastern US, and became quickly established as a natural enemy of Japanese beetle populations there. Although it will not eradicate the beetle from an area, the spring Tiphia can help keep populations of the beetle low enough to lessen damage to plants and to minimize the potential of accidentally transporting and thus spreading the beetle. The spring Tiphia is especially effective in suppressing outbreak populations of Japanese beetles. In areas with appropriate food plants, the wasp parasitizes an increasing percentage of grub population, thus causing these populations to be diminished over a period of several years.

The suppression of Japanese beetle populations by the spring Tiphia in outbreak areas ahead of, and along the advancing beetle front can minimize the amount of feeding damage caused and also slow the spread of the beetle. Also, by suppressing beetle populations in sensitive areas, such as around airports, parks, and plant nurseries, we can lessen the probability of accidentally transporting and introducing the Japanese beetle to un-infested areas. These natural enemies can be safely used to sustainably suppress populations of the Japanese beetle, especially in environmentally sensitive areas such as those near waterways or in state and federal parks. Once established, the natural enemies remain in the area for as long as the Japanese beetle is present, keeping beetle populations sustainably lower than they would be in their absence.

Description of Tiphia vernalis

The spring Tiphia wasp looks very similar to a winged black carpenter ant. The female wasp is heavily set and built for digging in the ground in search of Japanese beetle grubs. Its size can range from ½ to ¾ of an inch long. The male wasp, which spends its adult life flying in search of female wasps, is more slender and is normally only 3/8 of an inch long. It has a tiny hook at the end of its abdomen that is used when mating with the female. The female wasp possesses a stinger and, if handled roughly, can give a mild sting, similar to a sweat bee. However, it is not aggressive towards humans and will not normally sting people.

Distribution of Tiphia vernalis

The spring Tiphia wasp was originally released in New Jersey and Pennsylvania from 1925 to 1927. It established readily, and redistribution efforts by the USDA from 1927 through 1953 led to the release of the wasp in Maryland, New York, Delaware, Connecticut, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, West Virginia, Virginia, Ohio, North Carolina, New Hampshire, District of Columbia and Vermont.

Recent survey work by USDA APHIS (Animal Plant Health Inspection Service) has shown the spring Tiphia is widely distributed over many parts of the eastern United States. Researchers have found the wasp as far west as Indiana and Tennessee.

Life History of Tiphia vernalis

The spring Tiphia normally emerges when bridal wreath spirea are in bloom. After a brief period of feeding and mating, the female wasp begins to hunt for Japanese beetle grubs to parasitize. The female wasp is able to detect the presence of grubs in an area probably by scent, and burrows into the ground in search of a grub. Once she finds a grub in its earthen cell, a brief struggle ensues. The female wasp stings the grub, causing a temporary paralysis that lasts about 30 minutes. She then prepares an area on the underside of the now paralyzed grub between the thorax and abdomen to receive a single egg. She rasps the area with the tip of her abdomen and kneads it with her mandibles, then attaches an egg to this softened spot. By wearing away the membrane of the grub and making it thinner, the wasp larva, which hatches about 7 days later, has little problem piercing the skin of the grub in order to feed. The female wasp can normally parasitize 1 to 2 grubs daily in this manner, and can lay a total of between 40 and 70 eggs over her lifespan of 30 to 40 days.

Once the spring Tiphia wasp egg hatches, the larva begins to feed on the grub, and the grub rapidly becomes weakened and ceases to feed. The wasp larva grows rapidly and consumes the entire body of the grub except for the head capsule in a matter of days. The beetle grub now completely consumed, the wasp larva spins a waterproof brown cocoon in the earthen cell of its former occupant, and enters the pupal stage. Transformation from pupa to adults occurs inside the cocoon in late summer or early fall, and the adult wasps overwinters safe inside its waterproof cocoon until spring. In spring, the adult chews its way out of the cocoon, digs its way to the surface, and emerges from the soil to start the life cycle over again.

Selecting Areas for Release of Tiphia vernalis

The spring Tiphia wasp needs three factors for a successful release. They are: 1) An area that contains an abundant supply of its host, (which is the 3rd instar Japanese beetle or Oriental beetle [Anomala orientalis Waterhouse]); 2) Adequate food plants to enable the wasp to realize its reproductive potential; and 3) High and low ground to ensure continuance of the grub population in both wet and dry years. Studies by USDA researchers found that percentage of parasitization was greater for more dense grub populations: 57% for 6 grubs per square foot; 31% for 2 grubs per square foot; and less than 20% for one grub per square foot. However, the authors have found that these percentages could be increased by planting or having additional food plants in the areas where beetle grubs consistently occur, such as golf courses, parks and the areas surrounding airports.

The potential release area can be surveyed to determine how many Japanese beetle grubs per square foot are present. By doing some preliminary survey work, you will be able to select an area that has the most grubs, which will give you the best chance for establishment of the spring Tiphia. Grid off the potential area being considered for release. If you have a large area, such as a golf course or a park, you will want to make several sample sites to determine which has the most grubs. Each potential survey area can be gridded into a 30 foot by 30 foot square grid. Each section in the grid is a 10 foot by 10 foot piece, for a total of 9 ten foot square areas. The overall grid pattern looks like a tic-tac-toe drawing. Take one soil sample from each of the nine squares. Each soil sample should be 1 foot square and 6 to 8 inches deep. Count all the grubs in each soil sample. By looking at the raster pattern on the rear of each grub, you can determine if the grub is a Japanese beetle grub. Do this sampling pattern for each area under consideration for release of the Tiphia wasp.

In a heavy infestation, Japanese beetle larvae can be very numerous under the turf.

Once you have completed the soil sampling for each area, you will know how many grubs per square foot are present. By selecting an area with the highest number of grubs, you will ensure that the spring Tiphia has every advantage in order to become established in the desired area.

Food Plants for Adult Tiphia vernalis

USDA researchers found that, in the northeastern U.S., adult spring Tiphia wasps feed primarily on the honeydew exuded from aphids, scale insects, and leafhoppers. The adult wasps were found feeding on the shaded foliage of maple, elm, cherry, tulip and pine trees, and some broad-leafed shrubs. The wasp will also feed on the nectar of blossoms, such as forsythia, and on the extra-floral nectaries of peonies. However, as the wasps were later redistributed into other parts of the eastern and southern US, the potential exists for them to utilize other plants for food. Research by the author (RCM) while with the North Carolina Department of Agriculture (NCDA) found that Tiphia adults used blooming tulip poplar trees, Liriodendron tulipifera as a food and mating site. Researchers in China have used the knowledge of food plants to increase the rates of Tiphia parasitization of white grubs to an average of 85%. Thus, the potential for using food plants to increase the rates of parasitization of the Japanese beetle by the spring Tiphia is great and should be utilized whenever possible.

Food Plants Known to be Utilized by Adult Tiphia vernalis:

Determining Tiphia vernalis Parasitization Rates

In order to determine the parasitization rate of the spring Tiphia on the Japanese beetle, soil sampling must be done in a manner similar to that described above. Between 25 and 40 soil samples are normally taken. The timing of the survey work for parasitization rates is of utmost importance. The survey must occur between the time that the spring Tiphia has ceased its egg laying activities, and before the Japanese beetles begin to emerge as adults. Normally, this is a 7 to 10 day period, and usually occurs in early June in North Carolina. Due to the brevity of this period, only a certain amount of sampling can occur each year.

By digging up Japanese beetle grubs and pupae, you can examine each one to determine if the spring Tiphia has been active. You may find grubs, grubs with Tiphia larvae attached, Tiphia cocoons, or Japanese beetle pupae. The number of grubs and pupae that have no sign of spring Tiphia attack are compared to the number of parasitized grubs and Tiphia cocoons found in a particular area. This number will give an indication of the relative amount of parasitization of a particular population of the Japanese beetle.

Another indication of the relative effectiveness of the spring Tiphia is the large numbers of adult wasps seen flying on sunny days. Each wasp seen has developed at the expense of a Japanese beetle grub. Large numbers of these wasps flying about suggests that the parasites may be of much greater benefit than is usually thought. Wasps can be sampled non-destructively by spraying foliage with sugar water and counting the wasps attracted to the bush in a fixed interval.

Solanaceae

Nasturtium

Tropeolum. NO Cruciferae. Tincture of the seeds/whole plant.

CLINICAL

White aphids, squash bugs, white fly in tomatoes. Nematodes. Mealy bug.

GENERAL

Nasturtium is a companion plant that has the proven ability to protect other species against different species of aphids, according to Hylton, Grieve and others. Thus a homoeopathic dilution ought to be able to confer to plants a type of immunity to aphid infestation.

From experiments with plants it was noted that aphid infestation was only slightly influenced by Nasturtium in the 3x potency. More provings need to be conducted to establish with certainty the effects of the remedy. Experiments carried out on fennel infested with black aphid have been conducted. It deserves tests and provings on a larger variety of plants in different potencies.

Phalangium opilio

Harvestman, Daddy longlegs, Harvest spider NO Arachnida: Opiliones, Phalangiidae

CLINICAL:

Harvestmen will feed on many soft bodied arthropods in crops, including aphids, caterpillars, leafhoppers, beetle larvae, mites, and small slugs.

GENERAL:

Of the many species of harvestmen known, P. opilio tends to be the most common in relatively disturbed habitats such as most crops in temperate regions. Like the spiders and most adult mites, harvestmen have two major body sections and eight legs and lack antennae. Unlike spiders, the two body sections of harvestmen are broadly joined and no web spinning organs are present. Harvestmen differ from most mites by their larger size and by having the posterior body section distinctly segmented.

Appearance

The most notable features of P. opilio and many other harvestmen are the long, slender legs and short, globular body. Adult body length is approximately 3.5-9 mm, with males generally smaller than females. The upper surface of the body is colored with an indistinct and variable light gray or brown pattern, and the lower surface is typically light cream. Immatures are similar to adults, only smaller and with legs shorter relative to the body size. Eggs are spherical, about 0.4 mm diameter, with a smooth surface and color changing from off-white to dark gray-brown as they mature. They are laid in clusters of around ten to several hundred.

Habitat (Crops)

Harvestmen are often common in crops such as corn, alfalfa, small grains, potatoes, cabbage, strawberries, and apple in most temperate regions of the world.

Lifecycle

Phalangium opilio has a single generation per year and overwinters as eggs. In parts of North America two or more generations may occur, and eggs, immatures, or adults may overwinter. Eggs are laid in moist areas under rocks, in cracks in the soil, or between the soil and the crowns or recumbent leaves of plants. The eggs hatch in three weeks to five months or more, depending on temperature, and the immatures undergo several molts and reach maturity in two to three months, again depending on temperature.

Relative Effectiveness

Although P. opilio by itself appears unable to keep populations of any pest under control, it serves as one member of a complex of generalist predators that exist in many crops and that together are able to help keep pest densities low. In addition to pest arthropods, P. opilio also may feed on dead insects and other decaying material, as well as earthworms, other harvestmen, spiders and other beneficial invertebrates. Although its generalist feeding habits and tendency for cannibalism may appear to reduce its value in some situations, they may also allow it to persist in the crop during periods of low pest density and help suppress outbreaks of pests in their early stages.

Pesticide Susceptibility

P. opilio is highly susceptible to at least some broad spectrum insecticides, while some more specific products, such as Bts, appear to be less harmful.

Conservation

Avoid using broad-spectrum insecticides as much as possible.

Commercial Availability

Not currently available commercially.

Beetles & Weevils

Solanaceae

Cantharis

Spanish fly. NO Coleoptera. Trituration of live insect. Tincture of the live insect.

CLINICAL

Sunburn, blisters on leaves and petals. Fertiliser burns, water droplet burns, after bush fires, windburn, sunburn. Bronze orange bug, rust chrysanthemum, pelargonium. Blister beetles on potatoes.

GENERAL

Cantharis upsets the generative sphere of the plant, causing burning. Consequently when the flowers appear burnt in hot weather, Canth. is the remedy. It causes and cures an abundance of pollination from too long a stamen, readily absorbed by female flowers. Leaves and flower petals blister in the sun, especially after misting. Plant may have a burnt appearance. Fertiliser burns. After bush fires, to speed recovery and regrowth.

APPEARANCE

Burnt as after bushfire. Blisters on leaves and flower petals from fertiliser, water droplets or sunburn.

WATER NEEDS

High. Plant very thirsty. To replace sap lost in fires (Carbo v.).

FLOWERS AND FRUIT

Flowers abundant. As a reaction to fire, plant triggers off reproduction before it dies. Abundant pollen, good pollination. Fruits fail to mature, and drop before they set.

RELATIONS

Compare: Bombyx, Carbo veg.

Lebia grandis

Lebia beetle. Lebia grandis. NO Coleoptera: Carabidae.

CLINICAL:

Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata.

GENERAL:

Lebia grandis belongs to a large family of beetles containing approximately 40,000 species. The cosmopolitan genus Lebia contains approximately 450 species that are distributed primarily in the tropics. Forty-eight species occur in North America north of Mexico. The life history is known for less than 10 of the North American species. The adults are predators and first instar larvae are parasitoids of chrysomelid beetles.

Appearance

Lebia beetles are usually colourful as adults and range in size from 2.5 to 14 mm in length, depending on the species. Lebia grandis is the largest species in the genus in North America. Its body length ranges from 8.5 to 10.5 mm. Its head is usually pale (with a reddish tinge) as are its mouthparts, antennae, and thorax. Its abdomen is mostly black with a metallic blue, purple, or sometimes greenish lustre to the elytra (wing covers). Its legs are entirely pale with a reddish tinge.

Lebia grandis first instar larvae are pale to tan in coloration, heavily sclerotized (hardened), with well developed appendages, mouthparts and antennae, as is typical for carabid larvae. The body length ranges from 3 to 4 mm and the width is approximately 0.5 mm. The second instar larvae undergo a gradual degeneration of appendages, develop a distended body with much reduced sclerotization (a simple form of hypermetamorphosis), eventually bearing little resemblance to the first instars.

Habitat

Lebia grandis is distributed in the eastern to mid-eastern United States and into adjacent Canada. It has been found inhabiting arable land and its vicinity. It has been found on cultivated potato (Solanum tuberosum) and on horsenettle (Solanum carolinense) on arable land and neighboring open fields. Adults have also been observed on goldenrod (Solidago spp.).

Pests Attacked

Lebia grandis is an indigenous natural enemy of the Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. In fields of cultivated potato, adults are specialist predators of all immature stages of L. decemlineata. However, note that in no-choice feeding trials in the laboratory, L. grandis adults devoured the larvae of the asparagus beetle (Crioceris asparagi). [Neither adults nor larvae of C. asparagi are known to feed on potato plants.] L. grandis larvae are specialist ectoparasitoids of L. decemlineata mature larvae and pupae in the soil.

Lebia grandis has not been found in association with L. decemlineata on its ancestral host plant (Solanum rostratum) in central Mexico. It is conceivable that L. grandis was historically a specialist enemy of the closely related Leptinotarsa juncta on horse nettle in the south-eastern United States.

Life Cycle

Adults are diurnal under ideal conditions of high humidity and high temperature in late spring and summer in Maryland, USA. They have been seen on the upper-most foliage of potato plants feeding on the larvae of the Colorado potato beetle in Maryland. Adults are also nocturnal and have been captured in pitfall traps placed within plant rows during the growing season.

Adults emerge in late May to early June in Maryland, several weeks after the spring emergence of Colorado potato beetles. This ensures that prey (eggs and first to second instar larvae of L. decemlineata) are available for L. grandis adults, especially females, to feed on. It also provides adequate time for females to mate, then oviposit into soil near the base of the potato plants. Eggs are deposited singly into sandy soil. An adhesive substance (a possible secretion from the female’s accessory glands) covers each egg as it is laid, causing each to adhere to sand granules and become difficult to detect. A single female L. grandis can lay as many as 1300 eggs in its lifetime.

As first instar L. grandis emerge from the egg stage (within 2 weeks), they are very sensitive to dryness, but fairly well resistant to drowning. They readily search in the soil for L. decemlineata larvae about to pupate. First instars might follow an odour trail left behind by the L. decemlineata mature larvae, which burrow into the soil just prior to constructing their pupation chambers. In order to insure successful parasitism, L. grandis first instars must locate the L. decemlineata larvae before they seal their pupation cells. Apparently, L. grandis have a difficult time penetrating the sealed cells.

Once locating the host, the first instar larva attaches to the integument (skin) of the host with its mandibles and begins feeding. After moulting, the second instar L. grandis larva does not resume feeding. Metamorphosis to the pupal stage occurs soon thereafter, without any period of diapause. At 25°C, the adult emerges from the soil within 3 weeks from when it began feeding on its host. Two generations of L. grandis are probably produced each year in many populations in the south-eastern United States. Adults overwinter beneath the soil surface in or near potato fields.

Effectiveness

L. grandis have been considered by some to be the most promising indigenous enemy of L. decemlineata in North America. No large-scale field studies have been conducted to date. Under field conditions, L. grandis could be an effective predator/parasitoid of L. decemlineata on normal potato, when used in combination with other control strategies.

Foliar applications of Bt are probably compatible with the action of L. grandis. However, natural densities of L. grandis will not be great enough to effect control of this pest. Thus, augmenting the populations by releasing mass reared adults is one potential method for maximizing the effectiveness of this enemy of L. decemlineata. However, previous rearing experiments have resulted in only limited success in mass-producing L. grandis.

Conservation

In fields of normal (non-genetically engineered or transgenic) potato, the judicious use of pesticides will help conserve carabid populations. Timing of pesticide applications prior to spring emergence of adults would also help reduce unintentional killing of these natural enemies.

The growing of transgenic potatoes (containing the delta endotoxin derived from the bacterium, Bacillus thuringiensis ssp. tenebrionis) that confer resistance to attacks from adults and larvae of the Colorado potato beetle presents a unique challenge to the conservation of L. grandis. In pure stands of transgenic potato, L. grandis adults will not persist due to the low availability of prey to feed on. This problem is magnified due to the fact that L. grandis larvae will not have its hosts, L. decemlineata mature larvae and pupae.

Pesticide Susceptibility

As far as known, Lebia grandis adults and larvae can be killed by organophosphate, carbamate, or pyrethroid insecticides when contacting residues on the ground or foliage of potato plants. However, spray formulations of Bt are probably much less harmful.

Commercial Availability

Not available commercially at this time.